What Does Encoding Mean In Psychology, And How Does It Impact Memory?

While many people think memory challenges only occur due to age-related diseases like dementia or Alzheimer’s, it’s also possible for young adults to experience them. In these cases, difficulty remembering information often stems from issues with “encoding” or creating memories. While encoding difficulties can result from excessive multi-tasking or sleep deprivation, they can also be caused by mental health conditions like depression or anxiety.

If you’re noticing changes in your memory, online therapy can help. For example, people with age-related cognitive changes are often prescribed cognitive stimulation therapy to help maintain their memory. One study found that this type of therapy can help improve general cognitive functioning in older adults with mild to moderate dementia.

If you’re experiencing memory loss at a young age and think it could be due to an underlying mental illness, for instance, online therapy can help you address these concerns. In fact, research suggests that online therapy can be a cost-effective and impactful method of obtaining treatment for psychiatric comorbidities such as depression and anxiety.

Encoding psychology – Definition

For decades, psychologists and researchers have been fascinated by the complexities of the memory process. Countless experiments have sought to understand and explain the phenomenon of forming distinctive memories. Although there is still more to discover about this fundamental life process, research has shed light on how memory functions.

The three stages of the learning and memory process

Memory research has divided the process of creating and recalling memories into three main stages. These stages of memory—encoding, storage, and retrieval—play crucial roles in our ability to learn and form links between new and pre-existing information. 

1. Encoding

When it comes to psychology, the term “encoding” describes how information enters our memory system from sensory input. The initial encoding phase involves perceiving something through our senses and having the brain process it into memorable information.

2. Storage

Memory storage involves retaining information in the brain. The brain takes encoded information and filters it as either a sensory (very short-term), short-term, or long-term memory. Memories aren’t stored neatly in one part of the brain, though. Instead, different elements of memory are stored in disparate parts of the brain and linked together by neural networks. The more information is repeated through the neural networks, the more likely it will be stored in long-term memory.

3. Retrieval

Memory retrieval, or remembering, involves recalling previously encoded and stored information. There are two main methods for retrieving memory: recognition and recall.

• Recognition occurs when a physical object or event brings up a previous memory. This largely unconscious process is engaged when you recognize faces, remember the answers to multiple-choice test questions, or easily navigate around your neighborhood, for instance.
• Recall involves remembering a fact, object, or event that is not physically present. This process requires the direct revealing of information from memory. Recall could include things like remembering the name of someone you recognize or recalling information to complete fill-in-the-blank test questions. There is also the notion of recalling false memories.

The role of encoding in the memory system

Encoding is the first step of the memory process. Without proper encoding, our brains would not have the ability to store and retrieve memories.

Main types of encoding

Our brains rely on our senses to obtain information. Our senses provide a variety of ways to absorb information to be encoded, including:

• Acoustic encoding: the process of encoding sounds, actual words, and other auditory input for storage and retrieval. Acoustic encoding also includes using your inner voice to recite information to strengthen memories, for example, like mentally going over facts for a test. This is what tests such as word association mix-ups and others have demonstrated. In these cases, words triggered the memory recall process. 
• Visual encoding: the process of encoding images and visual sensory information. Visual information is temporarily stored within iconic memory before being encoded in long-term storage. According to the APA, to understand how visual encoding works within our memory systems, it can help to think of it “as a process intermediate to the extraction of meaning.” One particular inference would be that since most of us absorb so much visual information daily, this type of information tends to be forgotten easily. 
• Tactile encoding: the process of storing the memory of how something feels. Tactile encoding usually occurs through touch, although it can also occur with smells or tastes. Neurons in the somatosensory cortex react to vibrotactile stimuli caused by the feel or texture of an object. Tactile encoding could include remembering the feeling of your first kiss, the taste of your favorite meal, or the feeling of cuddling with a pet.
• Semantic encoding: the process of encoding semantic memory sensory input with a particular meaning or context. Semantic encoding involves remembering facts, ideas, and concepts not drawn from personal experience, such as word definitions, the dates of specific events, or the location of places on a map. Research suggests that our semantic encoding is much more memorable when we attach importance and/or emotions to the information (see the discussion of mnemonics below).
• Elaborative encoding: the process of actively relating new information or knowledge to something already in memory. Most memories are a combination of old and new information, and our interpretation of them depends on both. For example, a novice pianist may remember her first recital as exciting and excellent. As she gets better and performs more, she may still see her first recital as exciting but come to think that her playing was sloppy and amateur. 
• Organizational encoding: the process of classifying information associated with other information, like identifying relationships between a series of items. Like elaborative encoding, it involves encoding existing memories differently. One example is knowing that cats, dogs, monkeys, and humans are all mammals.

As you can see, there are many ways we encode information to store it in our memories. Each type of encoding involves different brain areas and functions that work in different ways. Some forms of encoding are thought to lead to better storage and recall than others. For example, in many studies, when participants hear lists of words (acoustic encoding) or are asked to understand the definitions of words (semantic encoding), their initial registration of the information is more comprehensive than when they attempt to memorize the words in other ways. 

In one study, researchers found that information gleaned from a series of semantic processing questions was better retained than that obtained through acoustic or visual processing questions. The semantic processing questions involved understanding the meanings of the words while acoustic and visual processing questions included descriptions of their spoken cadence or font. The information that was more readily retrieved during the memory test tended to require the most time and effort to process initially. This is also why it can be difficult to recall certain memories and how the mind is good at inducing false memories when trying to remember. 

How does the brain encode?

After receiving sensory input, the brain has to determine if the information is worth remembering. Encoding information occurs through complex neurological functions. Memory tests tended to show that the hippocampus and frontal cortex are responsible for analyzing sensory input and determining its value. This is also where information can be confused during recall, creating false memories in some cases. 

Memory is then encoded using the brain's language of electricity and chemicals. Nerve cells connect with other cells at a connection point called a synapse. Electrical pulses carrying messages leap between cells as synapses trigger the release of chemical messengers known as neurotransmitters. Neurotransmitters then diffuse across cells, which form the links and neural pathways that are essential for creating memories.

A logical inference is that these connections between cells change all the time based on the information the brain receives. This is why we may remember something differently as time goes on, or later organize previously stored memories into meaningful categories.

As neurons form associations and send signals to one another, the synapses between them can get stronger. This is why practicing and repetition can help you memorize facts or learn a new skill like playing an instrument.

The importance of distinctiveness in encoding

Psychologists have determined that distinctiveness is necessary for information to be encoded in long-term memory. Distinctiveness refers to the way our brains tend to better encode events that are unique or memorable. For example, let’s say you walk your dog every day on one of a couple of set routes. While you may remember that you walked your dog last Wednesday, you probably can’t typically recall any specific details about the occasion.

Now imagine that one day, your dog got loose from its leash, started running down the block, and was almost hit by a car, and it took three people to chase it down. A month later, you would probably still remember vivid images in detail. You might recall how you felt when your dog got away, the color and make of the car that almost hit it, and the faces, clothes, and names of those who helped you retrieve your dog. You’d likely remember these things because the experience was much different from your typical walks. In addition, the strong emotions you felt as your dog narrowly escaped injury may also add to your vivid recall of the experience.

Emotions play such an important role in encoding and storing information that even recalling highly charged events you didn't personally experience (like public tragedies) can conjure vivid memories of when you heard the news. When the mind encodes events in this way, it’s often referred to as flashbulb memory. Because of the distinctive emotion you feel, your mind permanently stores the details surrounding your experience of the news in long-term memory.

Tips for better memory encoding

Our brains have evolved to encode memories obtained through a variety of senses, but there are some good encoding strategies that can help us better form distinctive memories. For example, although writing is an effective way to explain and break down complex subjects, our brains tend to gain enhanced learning capabilities with visual stimuli or mental imagery. 

When faced with a recognition task or memory test, creating imagery that accompanies each important piece of information may help you optimize the functioning of your information processing system. For instance, if you’re using a word-list technique to remember vocabulary in a foreign language, creating a simple sketch next to a difficult definition can help you avoid a word association mix-up. 

By understanding encoding, we can find ways to improve our long and short-term memory recall. Experts have uncovered many recording strategies that can help us store and retrieve information. For instance, mnemonics offer a powerful way for the brain to encode difficult information and commit it to memory. If, for example, you’re trying to remember musical notes on the treble clef, you may use the phrase, "Every good boy deserves fudge" to recall the notes E, G, B, D, and F on the staff's lines. Such a sentence is an example of a mnemonic device.

Mnemonics are typically most effective when we also engage our mind in creating vivid mental images. By adding imagination, association, and location to our mnemonics, the brain’s recoding processes make them easier to recall. To make your mnemonics more effective, try incorporating:

• Imagination. The more strongly you imagine and visualize a mnemonic, the more likely it is to stick with you. Creating vivid mental images that are meaningful can help you develop lasting memories. 
• Association. As mentioned above, one way the brain encodes information is by associating and organizing it into groups. When imagining associations, picture them stacked, crashing into each other, or linked by the same color, smell, or feeling.
• Location. If there are similar types of information you have to remember, consider placing your mnemonic images in different mental landscapes or settings. This can help the brain keep them separate and avoid confusion.

Using vivid mental imagery isn’t the only way to help you with mnemonics. You can also try using humor or symbols to encode more complex messages, or thinking of pleasant images since your brain often blocks out unpleasant ones. Additionally, you can use the self-reference effect to your benefit. The self-reference effect describes our tendency to better remember information that somehow connects to our personal experience. For example, by relating your notes from anatomy class to the functions of your specific body, you may find that you’re better prepared for the actual test material.  

Health conditions that can affect memory encoding

Many people associate poor memory with dementia and Alzheimer’s disease. These conditions often affect the last two stages of memory: storage and retrieval. If you are younger and experiencing memory difficulties, however, they could be a result of issues with encoding. Many factors can impact your encoding ability. If you’re noticing changes in your memory, it could be due to:

• Excessive multi-tasking or a busy lifestyle
• Sleep apnea
• Sleep deprivation
• Thyroid problems
• A vitamin B12 deficiency
• Depression
• Anxiety

If you are concerned that a mental illness may be affecting your memory, getting assistance from a therapist can help you identify the root cause and manage the effects. Online therapy can be an effective option for people experiencing memory loss due to an underlying mental health condition because it means that sessions with your therapist are possible from the comfort of your home. If symptoms of depression or anxiety, for example, make it hard to leave the house, you can still get the treatment you deserve through virtual therapy.

Additionally, some online therapists can also be reached through in-app messaging, even after your appointment is complete. If you find that you forget to ask questions during your therapy appointments, you can easily message your therapist afterward and they can respond when they’re able. This is the case with virtual therapy platforms like BetterHelp, which provide licensed and accredited psychotherapy services through phone calls, video calls, and/or chat, and which are generally more effective and affordable than in-person services.