The Life And Work Of Psychologist Erik Erikson

Erik Erikson was an influential psychologist who made substantial contributions to the realms of developmental psychology, identity formation, and cultural anthropology. Erikson’s psychosocial theory of development helped shape our understanding of the way children develop. Learning about Erikson’s developmental stage model can help us remain cognizant of how personal growth and identity formation may occur in our lives. Below, we’re examining Erikson’s stages of development, covering his life and discussing his enduring impact on the landscape of developmental psychology. 

Erik Erikson’s early life and career

Erik Erikson was born in 1902 in Frankfurt-am-Main, Germany. Erikson was originally named Erik Salomonsen, then Erik Homburger, after his stepfather. Eventually, he created his own last name, Erikson. While working in Vienna, he met Anna Freud, the youngest child of Sigmund Freud (known for his theory of human personality that it is comprised of, ego, superego, and id psychology), who inspired him to pursue a research career in psychoanalysis. 

In 1930, he married Joan Mowat Serson, who changed her name to Joan Mowat Erikson when Erik came up with his eventual surname. After completing his psychoanalytic training in 1933—and having a young son, Kai T. Erikson—Erikson fled Nazi Germany with his family and settled in Boston, MA. He and Joan would have three other children—Jon Erikson, Sue Erikson Bloland, and Neil Erikson. 

The Life Cycle Completed and other works from Erik Erikson

Erikson was a prolific writer during his career, starting with his first book, Childhood and Society, in which he outlined his eight developmental stages. Erikson’s psychosocial theory was more thoroughly encapsulated in a later book, The Life Cycle Completed. In addition to these two works, he would author and co-author several other books, including: 

• Life History and the Historical Moment

• Vital Involvement in Old Age

• Toys and Reasons: Stages in the Ritualization of Experience

• Insight and Responsibility: Lectures on the Ethical Implications of Psychoanalytic Insight

• Gandhi’s Truth: On the Origins of Militant Nonviolence

Identity formation: Erik Erikson's theory of psychosocial development

Erik Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development provided insights into the way personal identity forms in human beings over time. Unlike Freud’s theory of psychosexual development, Erikson’s theory focuses on the social factors that help an individual develop identity. 

Erikson’s theory suggests that when we complete each stage successfully, we move towards a healthy personality and acquire essential virtues and strengths along the way, which help us resolve crises in the next stage. If we fail to complete a stage successfully, it can be more challenging to complete subsequent stages, and we'll have a reduced capacity for a healthy personality and self-esteem. He also believed we could resolve some or all stages later in life. His theories have helped mental health providers better care for individuals undergoing significant transitions as they age. 

A key component of Erikson’s theory is the epigenetic principle, which posits that an individual’s inherited traits interact with environmental influences as they develop. Erikson’s belief in this principle helps explain why his stages go beyond childhood. Here is a list of Erikson's developmental stages and descriptions of each.

Trust vs. mistrust

We experience this stage from the moment we're born until we're about 18 months of age. Parents or caregivers who are consistent and reliable can help infants develop a sense of trust that they can transfer to future relationships. The sense of trust can also help them feel safe even if they feel threatened. According to researchers in a study published in the Community Mental Health Journal, an important question will be answered during this stage: “Is the world reliable and are object relations consistent and available?”

Research conducted by John Bowlby and Mary Ainsworth demonstrated that secure attachments in infancy lead to healthy relationships and attachments later in life, underscoring Erikson's views on this stage. Inversely, infants who are neglected may develop mistrust, suspicion, and anxiety. Failure to feel safe at this stage can mean that the child may have trouble with trust in future relationships and the world in general.

Autonomy vs. shame and doubt

Stage two occurs, according to Erikson, during early childhood—from age 18 months to age three. The psychosocial crisis in early childhood is autonomy vs. shame and doubt. Children in this stage of life have the goal of learning self-control without losing self-esteem. 

During this stage, children become more independent. Parents and caregivers who allow children the space to do things for themselves while praising their efforts and allowing them some room to fail can help their children become more confident in their abilities to survive in the world.

If children are criticized and constantly told what they can and can't do, they become less dependent on themselves and overly dependent on others. 

Initiative vs. guilt

Children learn to assert themselves more often in the third stage, which lasts from age three to age five. This is the initiative vs guilt stage, which is a busy one for kids. Children need the freedom to plan activities and initiate games and fun with other children because it helps improve their ability to take the initiative, develop a sense of leadership, and be responsible for decisions.

If children aren't allowed to start taking some control, and they're criticized or marginalized, they may feel guilty, which can inhibit a child's creativity and slow their ability to interact with others. It's important to note that some sense of guilt can be helpful, as it gives children some self-control and conscience. What’s important at this stage is moderation.

Industry vs. inferiority

Erikson's psychology labels the fourth psychosocial stage as industry vs. inferiority, from ages five to twelve. At this stage, children begin to learn at a rapid rate. They usually develop respect for their teachers and other authority figures and their peers can significantly influence their behavior and self-esteem. During this stage, children often seek approval by demonstrating their worth and developing a sense of pride.

When children feel reinforced and encouraged, they gain confidence and feel competent. Children who lack encouragement during this stage feel inferior to others and find it challenging to work towards things that are important to them.

Failure plays a role during this stage in helping children be humble. Children need to have a balance of competence and modesty.

Identity vs. role confusion

The teen years, from 12 to 18, comprise the fifth stage of Erikson's psychology, identity vs. role confusion (which gave rise to the term identity crisis). During this stage, children explore their values, beliefs, and goals to understand who they are and develop their own identity. 

The fifth stage prepares preteens and teens for adult life, including careers, relationships, housing, and where they fit into society as independent people. As children work to find their place in the world while still being accepted and fitting in, they determine how they want to be perceived by others. 

In this stage, success leads to the establishment of a clear understanding of self-identity. Teens can become confident in associating with others without losing themselves and thus develop fidelity. Difficulty navigating this stage may result in complicated social interactions, a weak sense of self, withdrawal, or possibly an inflated sense of self-importance.

Intimacy vs. isolation

The next stage in the theory of psychosocial development is longer than the previous stages and occurs from ages 18 to 40. During the intimacy vs. isolation stage, adults seek intimate, loving relationships with others. Finding successful love often means developing longer-term commitments with people not part of the immediate family.

Those who work through this stage successfully can find happiness in their relationships and be committed to them. Those who avoid being intimate with others or fear commitment may experience isolation or depression. Successful completion of this stage leads to the virtue of love.

Generativity vs. stagnation

Middle adulthood spans from ages 40 to 65 and includes generativity vs. stagnation. During this stage, adults start taking stock of what they've accomplished. They're often concerned about their legacy and what they've contributed to the world that can outlast their lives. 

Adults who feel accomplished feel useful and productive. Those who feel like they've failed may feel disconnected and uninvolved with their community and the rest of society. Completing this stage successfully gives adults a sense of caring for themselves and others. Research suggests that individuals who feel socially engaged during the generativity vs stagnation stage experience significant mental health benefits. In a study titled “Midlife Eriksonian Psychosocial Development”, researchers found that successfully navigating this stage can lead to increased cognitive functioning and decreased depression. 

Ego integrity vs. despair

The final psychosocial stage lasts from age 65 until death. It's called ego integrity vs. despair. In this final stage of life, people tend to think about their accomplishments and develop a sense of calm and acceptance, or integrity, if they are satisfied that they have lived a full and meaningful life. Those who feel dissatisfied with their life choices can feel a sense of despair and hopelessness.

Completing this stage should lead a person to feel the value of having wisdom and accept life's end.

An unexpected crisis can occur at any stage of our lives. Erikson's theory proposes that our prior experiences give us the tools to navigate situations in future stages of life. When you face unexpected times of crisis or despair, you don't have to navigate them alone. Talking to an online therapist can help. 

Online therapy options

Online therapy has many benefits that make finding a qualified therapist easier. You don’t have to worry about getting on a waiting list or commuting to an office outside your area. With online therapy at BetterHelp, you can meet with a licensed counselor from home or anywhere you have an internet connection. 

Research shows that online therapy is effective, with comparisons of face-to-face and internet therapy from 14 studies showing no difference in results.  Whether you’re feeling unhappy about your current psychosocial stage or have realized you need help resolving one of the stages from your childhood, online therapy can help.