Negative Discipline And Mental Health: The Psychological Effects Of Punishment On Children

Punishment has been a common way to attempt to correct the misbehavior of children for much of history. Even today, as many as two-thirds of children worldwide are estimated to experience regular physical punishment in particular from their caregivers. Despite the prevalence of both physical and psychological punishment, research suggests that its potential negative outcomes are many. Here, we’ll take a closer look at what recent studies have to say about punishment and the psychological considerations related to it, and we’ll also explore more positive methods of discipline. This overview can be useful for parents, caregivers, educators, and others who regularly interact with children.

What is punishment?

The American Psychological Association (APA) defines punishment as “a physically or psychologically painful, unwanted, or undesirable event or circumstance imposed as a penalty on an actual or perceived wrongdoer.” In more casual conversations about parenting and education, the words “punishment” and “discipline” may be used interchangeably—but psychologists make a crucial distinction between these concepts. 

From a psychological perspective, punishment inflicts psychological or physical pain. In contrast, discipline can be understood as a positive method of teaching a valuable lesson or skill to a child—like self-control or responsibility—which is usually done in a constructive and non-threatening way.

Potential psychological effects of punishment 

Compared to healthy or “positive” discipline, punishment tends to focus solely on a child’s misbehavior without offering insights, advice, or support for learning and improvement. Some examples of physical punishment (also called corporal punishment) include spanking, hitting, or other actions to cause bodily pain. Non-physical forms of punishment may include things like yelling, isolation, or shaming. These forms of physical and non-physical punishment are now generally classified as abuse.

The following list reflects some of punishment’s psychological considerations based on a substantial body of research. 

Physical punishment can result in chronic stress

Based on data from the World Health Organization (WHO), children who receive physical punishment tend to be more highly reactive to stress, which can affect the functioning of their nervous, cardiovascular, and nutritional systems. Over time, the daily toll on these biological systems can create a cycle of “toxic stress” with several potential long-term implications. Some of these include a significantly increased risk of:

• Dropping out of school

• Substance misuse

• Depression

• Heart disease

• Self-harm and suicide

Punishment can increase a child’s risk of developing a mental health condition

Chronic stress and mental health challenges are often interlinked, but the research on mental health and punishment is worth noting separately as well. For example, in a 2021 study, researchers found that spanking may alter a child’s neural responses to “environmental threats,” according to MRI brain scans. In response to a series of images featuring different facial expressions, those who had previously experienced spanking from their caregivers had higher activity in areas of the brain that control emotional responses and detect threats, even in response to smiles and other non-threatening expressions. 

This is one study of many that suggests that spanking is not only an ineffective tool for discipline, but that it could have detrimental effects on a child’s brain functioning and development, too. Other research indicates that over time, children who repeatedly experience spanking or other forms of physical punishment may be more likely to develop a variety of mental health conditions, from anxiety disorders and depression to substance use disorders and personality disorders.

Behavioral challenges can arise out of negative discipline

Although parents and educators may use punishment in an effort to encourage positive behaviors, evidence suggests that it often has the opposite effect. Research indicates a strong connection between physical and psychological punishment and poor behavioral outcomes, such as increased aggression and other antisocial behaviors, which may persist into adulthood. Children who are subjected to these types of punishment may also experience challenges related to emotional control and conflict resolution, which could lead to or exacerbate other behavioral concerns.

Corporal punishment can lead to reduced self-esteem in children

Self-esteem describes how positively a person perceives their own qualities and characteristics. Low self-esteem can stem from a mental health condition or a specific experience(s). It can also reflect a person’s emotional development, which may be compromised by the experience of physical and psychological punishment. Mirroring the relationship between spanking and mental health challenges, several studies have suggested a link between physical punishment and lower self-esteem. 

Low self-esteem can contribute to other mental health challenges

Low self-esteem is associated with several potential psychological consequences, such as:

• Greater risk of stress, loneliness, depression, anxiety disorders, and substance use disorder

• Perfectionism to “make up for” perceived faults or mistakes

• Reluctance to try new things in school and other social settings

• Self-disparaging comments, which can further deteriorate a child’s confidence over time 

That’s why the APA recommends an emphasis on practices that can help cultivate healthy self-esteem in young children in particular—especially in the classroom. Teachers can offer specific, genuine, and positive feedback on students’ efforts rather than focusing only on the outcome of a certain project. Educators and other adults can also support student growth and confidence by pointing out concrete signs of progress, engaging them in conversations about their interests, and giving them specific tasks informed by their interests at which they can excel.  

Developing a healthy, positive approach to discipline

Developing a healthy approach to discipline as a parent, caregiver, or educator can take time, especially since it may look different from what an individual experienced during their own childhood. Doing more research on discipline, taking a parenting class, joining a support group, and reading books or listening to podcasts about research-backed methods could all be helpful ways to learn healthy new patterns. 

Core tenets of positively disciplining a child

In general, some core tenets of a healthy, positive approach to discipline include: 

• Setting clear and consistent expectations

• Praising positive behaviors and progress

• Giving a child a chance to do the right thing

• Striving to understand together what caused a child’s misbehavior

• Engaging in collaborative conflict resolution

• Offering positive and appropriate physical affection like hugs or high-fives

• Prioritizing one-on-one time with your child to develop trust and show care

How parents can seek support in therapy

Parenting, caregiving, teaching, and other roles that involve working with children may all have their challenges. When it comes to discipline, behavioral issues, or other potential stressors, caregivers and educators may benefit from professional support. A therapist, for instance, can generally offer a safe space where an individual can openly express their feelings and frustrations, reflect on their personal values and goals as a parent or teacher, and learn strategies for coping with stress, setting boundaries, communicating clearly, and other skills related to relationship-building of all kinds.

Learning about the psychological effects of punishment in online therapy

Some people prefer face-to-face therapy sessions, but a growing number of parents and other individuals now use online therapy instead to fit mental health care into their busy schedules. With a digital platform like BetterHelp, you can get matched with a licensed therapist within a few days of completing a brief questionnaire, and you can then meet with them via phone, video call, and/or in-app messaging. Research suggests no difference in effectiveness between face-to-face therapy and online therapy, meaning that you generally have the freedom to choose whichever method may appeal to you.